Inflation and the Money Supply Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Inflation and the Money Supply - Essay Example Most of the economists indicate that one of the principal reasons of inflation is the unreasonable growth in money supply. The sources of this theory lie with Monetarist economists. Milton Friedman observed that, "Inflation is always and everywhere a monetary phenomenon," (Milton Friedman, 1987). The theory of inflation takes up the Quantity Theory of Money to propose that if the amount of money in the economy grows faster than the growth in the level of possible output, then this will affect upon the prices. In other words if the money supply grows too fast there will be inflation. The broad aim of this essay is to bring out the knowledge of the basic theory concerning the relationship between the growth of money supply and inflation in an applied context. This will demonstrate a clear understanding of both narrow and broad measures of the money supply and their linkages with relevant macroeconomic variables. Through analysis of relevant macroeconomics data which is taken from official data sources, a qualified conclusion concerning the relationship between inflation and money supply growth for a country is arrived. The main policy implications of the findings for the conduct of monetary policy are also carried out. The classical theory of monetary policy defines money as a medium of exchange. Money is utilized to carry out the dealings and it is indifferent in its affect on the economy. It cannot manipulate the real variable quantities like income, output and employment. On the other hand, the economy can determine the monetary variables like price level and monetary wages. Consequently the classical economists stated that price level is the function of money supply. This was explained with the help of the quantity theory of money. The level of prices will be double the quantity of money was the conclusion which they derived. Therefore any alterations in supply of money will affect the price proportionately. It is symbolised by the equation of exchange: MV=PY: Where M= supply of money, V= velocity or the number of times money turns over per time in the purchase of final output Y, P= price level of output Y. MV= PY is an identity element and hence can be written as MV= PY. This formula states that the amount of money multiplied by the number of times each unit of money on the average is expended to purchase final output at any given time. It is again multiplied by the price level of those goods and services that is PY. As Y constitutes GNP, P is the price level of the goods and services developed Y, and V is the number of times the money supply is used to purchase goods whose value is PY then GNP = C+I+G= MV= PY. The above theory can also be represented as: MV = PY, where V is the velocity of money. It is alleged to evaluate how often the money stock turns over in each period. It can also be written as: V = nominal GDP/nominal money supply, i.e., V = PY/M. MV = PY is treated as an identity and not an equation, since by the definition of V, it must always true. When there are alterations in M, P, or Y, then V may have to adapt. Empirically, the V in the identity above is not required to be a constant. If we assume that V is a constant, then we have the QTM, which can be tested empirically. The new version of the QTM is

Using Tight-Binding Model Essay Example for Free

Using Tight-Binding Model Essay Abstract— In this study, using tight binding model a simple analytical approach has been proposed to investigate the energy dispersion of graphene under the conditions of different planner strain distribution. Here the change in the angle between the primitive unit vectors due to application of external strain has been taken into consideration to propose the approach. From our proposed model it is found that graphene under relaxed or symmetrical strain distribution is a zero bandgap semiconductor. However a band gap is opened as the asymmetrical strain is applied to it. It is seen that upto a certain level of strain (i.e. 12.2 % parallel to carbon-carbon bond and 7.3% perpendicular to carbon-carbon bond) the band gap of graphene increases and then begin to fall . So, four different assumptions have been made for angular change of primitive unit vectors for four different regions of applied strain (i.e. before and after the strain of 12.2 % parallel to carbon-carbon bond before and after the strain of 7.3% perpendicular to carbon-carbon bond). The result obtained in the present study are compared and found an excellent agreement, with more or less 96% accuracy with that of determined from first principle technique. Keywords—Graphene, planner strain, tight binding model, energy dispersion, band-gap. I. INTRODUCTION Graphene, a strictly two-dimensional material having unusual and interesting properties [1] is a rapidly rising star on the horizon of material science and condensed matter physics. It is a material of interest in semiconductor industry because of its exceptionally high crystal and electronic quality, excellent transport properties (i.e. high electron mobility [2] and high thermal conductivity), and as it is planner, it is capable of extreme device scaling comparing with silicon technology. However these excellent properties are associated with a major drawback; graphene is a zero bandgap semiconductor or semimetal [3]-[4]. For large scale manufacturing, the absence of bandgap is the most difficult engineering issue to solve. The zero bandgap revels that it is impossible to switch graphene based device from the conductive to the nonconductive state. So it can not be used in the logic circuit. As the zero bandgap property of graphene limits its application in practical fields, scientists are working to find out the methods to open the bandgap in graphene. To solve this problem several methods have been proposed, such as graphene nanoribbin using quantum confinement effect in its transverse direction [5]-[8], bilayer graphene introducing symmetry breaking between two carbon layers via an external electric field [9],[10] , by the process of doping [11]-[13] and by the process of external strain [14],[15]. To investigate the bandgap opening by the above methods, several techniques have been applied for calculating the band structure of graphene such as first principal calculation, tight binding modeling, k.p method etc. All of them are performed earlier using the software simulation or numerical techniques, which require a huge computational complexity and time consuming and need high capacity super computer. In our study we have proposed a simple analytical approach to investigate the energy dispersion of graphene under different planner strain condition. Using the proposed method the bandgap opening is calculated under the application of asymmetrical strain parallel and perpendicular to the carbon-carbon bond in graphene. The results obtained from the proposed method is compared with the result published by the first principle method and found to be in good agreement with more or less 96 % accuracy. II. METHOD Graphene is a honeycomb lattice of regular hexagonal structure. But it loses its regular hexagonal structural symmetry under uniaxial/shear strain. When planar stress is applied to graphene, the position of carbon atoms shift relative to each other. As a result the vector position of lattice point changes. To explain this, the angle between a1 and a2 is considered here as ÃŽ ¸ instead of assuming 60o which is true for ideal or relaxed graphene structure. The eï ¬â‚¬ect in the tight-binding Hamiltonian is that the parameters of tight-binding scales changes accordingly. The strained lattice structure of graphene is shown in Fig.1. We have used the simple nearest Neighbor tight binding model. Here each Carbon atom is ÏÆ' bonded with three of its nearest neighbor Carbon atoms. Fig.1 : The direct lattice structure of graphene under strained condition The primitive unit vectors can be represented by where The separation of the carbon atoms (A and B) can be represented by three vectors R1, R2, R3 From Tight-binding energy dispersion model the formula of energy dispersion is given by [13] (1) Where Here is a fitting parameter which is often called the nearest neighbor overlap energy or hopping integral. The value of varies from 2.7eV to 3.3eV. (2) This is the generalized equation for the energy dispersion of graphene. Here is the angle between the primitive unit vectors. For the unstrained or relaxed condition, the value of the angle = 60o. In this case the Ï€ bands overlap at direct point or K point of the two dimensional brillouin zone. (a) (b) Fig.2(a) energy dispersion of relaxed graphene and (b) the corresponding brillouin zone. We have investigated the electronic structure of graphene under different planar strain distributions by the tight-binding (TB) approach. The graphene has been strained in three different ways [12]. These are : (i) symmetrical strain distribution (keeping the hexagonal symmetry unchanged) as shown in fig. 3.1(a) , (ii) asymmetrical strain distribution parallel to C-C bonds as shown in Fig. 3.1(b) , (iii) asymmetrical distribution perpendicular to C-C bonds as shown in Fig.3.1(c). Fig 3(a) Graphene system with symmetrical strain distribution, (b) asymmetrical strain distribution perpendicular to C-C bonds, and (c) asymmetrical strain distribution parallel to C-C bonds. Corresponding primitive cells in black, reciprocal lattices in green dashed and Brillouin zones in green grey are illustrated below the deformed lattices. Γ, K, M, R and S are the high symmetrical points. Lx and Ly are the half of the diagonal lengths of the primitive cells in parallel and perpendicular direction of the carbon-carbon bond. As the strain is applied to the graphene, it causes the deformation of the regular hexagonal structure of it . It also causes the deformation in the primitive unit cell. If the strain is symmetric then the band property of the system does not change but for asymmetrical strain , the band property of the system changes due to symmetry breaking. When an asymmetrical strain parallel to C-C bond is applied, it causes a deformation in the primitive unit cell. This deformation is taken as a change in angle between the primitive unit vectors. Here the strain is applied upto 12.2 % and it is seen that with the increase in strain the angle between the primitive unit vectors is reduced by following a 3 degree polynomial with respect to Lx and Ly(where Lx and Ly are in nanometer). The equation of is (3) This value of is then put in equation (2) to calculate the band gap under different strain distribution . It is seen that up to Ly =0.2396 nm band gap of graphene increases then the bandgap begin to fall . For this region the assumption of is different and it is, (4) In case asymmetrical applied strain perpendicular to C-C bond , up to 7.3 % strain the angle between the primitive unit vectors is increased by following a 2 degree polynomial with respect Lx and Ly. The equation of is, (5) Now up to Lx = 0.1323 nm band gap of graphene increases and then the bandgap begins to fall. For this region the assumption of is, (6) III.RESULT Asymmetrical strain distribution results in the opening of the bandgap between the maximum of the valance band and the minimum of the conduction band in graphene. When an asymmetrical strain parallel to carbon-carbon bond is applied, Ly increases. Then for the system in order to come back to its lowest energy, Lx decreases during the structural relaxation. Due to change of Lx and Ly, the angle between the primitive unit vectors decreases and causes the symmetry breaking. This angular change is taken as the parameter of deformed primitive cell to calculate the electronic structure of graphene. For example, for Ly = 0.2196, 0.2236, 0.2396, and 0.2436 nm the corresponding optimized values of Lx are Lx= 0.1228, 0.1224, 0.1217 and 0.1216 nm. Then from our proposed model the corresponding angle between the primitive unit vectors are =59.47o, 58.91o, 54.79o and 57.75o. The corresponding electronic structure or band diagrams are shown in fig.4 with the extended view at K point (a) (b) (c) (d) Fig.4 Extended view of bandgap opening for (a) Ly=0.2196 nm and Lx=0.1228 nm (b) Ly=0.2236 nm and Lx=0.1224 nm (c) Ly=0.2396 nm and Lx=0.1217 nm (d) Ly=0.2436 nm and Lx=0.1216 nm. Similar behavior is obtained in the graphene system, when asymmetrical strain perpendicular to carbon-carbon bond is applied. In this case for example for Lx =0.1268, 0.1292, 0.1353 nm the corresponding optimized Ly are Ly=0.2126, 0.2120 and 0.2105 nm and the corresponding deformed angle are = 60.52o, 61.05oand 60.38o. The opening of bandgap corresponding to these deformed angle are shown in fig.5 (a) (b) (c) FIG.4 EXTENDED VIEW OF BANDGAP OPENING FOR (A) LX=0.1268 NM AND LY= 0.2126 NM (B) LX= 0.1292 NM AND LY=0.2120 NM (C) LY=0.1353 NM AND LX= 0.2105 NM . These results revels that the zero bandgap or semi-metallic behavior of graphene sheet gets modified or a bandgap is opened when asymmetrical strain is applied to it. Now the question is what is the reason behind this? We know that planner graphene consists of strong bonds and delocalized pz electrons. Here orbitals are formed by overlapping the pz orbitals of the carbon atoms in the hexagonal lattice. These and bands touches each other at the K point causing zero bandgap. When the strain is applied the carbon-carbon bonds of graphene get elongated. Due to this elongation of carbon-carbon bonds, the electron clouds get localized on the corresponding carbon atoms. Therefore a restriction is imposed on movement of the electrons which causes the opening the bandgap at the K point. In this way, under strained condition, graphene loses its semimetal characteristics and turns into a direct bandgap semiconductor. IV.COMPARISON WITH ESTABLISHED METHOD: In this study, we have calculated the band gap of graphene under the application of asymmetrical strain by an analytical approach. The calculated value is found to be in great agreement with the measured value obtained by first principle calculation [14]. It is found that in case of asymmetrical strain distribution parallel and perpendicular to C-C bond, the percentage of error is more or less 4 % for most of the data which is shown In this study an analytical model has been proposed for investigating the energy dispersion of strained graphene under the distribution of the planner strain in parallel and perpendicular to carbon-carbon bond. Using the proposed model the energy dispersion for different planner strain has been calculated. From our study it is seen that for relaxed or symmetrically strained graphene, the band gap of the system is zero. When asymmetrical strain parallel or perpendicular to carbon-carbon bond is applied then a finite bandgap is opened. And it is also seen that tuning the percentage strain, the band gap can also be tuned. Here it is also seen that comparing the perpendicular strain, parallel strain parallel to the carbon -carbon bond more induces more bandgap. Finally we have compared our results with the results obtained from the established method and found good agreement with around 96 % accuracy. References [1]A.K. Geim and K.S. Novoselov, â€Å"The rise of graphene ,† Nat. Mater, vol.6, pp.183-191, 2007. [2]Ryutaro Sako, Hideaki Tsuchiyaand Matsuto Ogawa, â€Å"Influence of bandgap opening on ballistic electron transport in bilayer graphene and graphene nanoribbon FETs,† IEEE Trans. Electronic Devices., vol. 58, no. 10, pp. 3300–3306, Oct. 2011. [3]K.S. Novoselov, A.K. Geim, S.V. Morozov, D. Jiang, Y. Zhang, S.V. Dubonos, I.V. Grigorieva and A.A. Firsov, Science 306, 666 (2004). [4]K.S. Novoselov, D. Jiang, F.Schedin, T.J. Bhoot, V.V. Khot-kevich, S.V. Morozov and A.K Geim, Proc.Natl.Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 102,10451 (2005). [5]M.Y. Han, B. Ozylmaz, Y. Zhang, and P. Kim, â€Å"Energy band gap engineering of grapheme nanoribbons,† Phys. Rev. Lett. ,vol. 98, no. 20, P. 206805, May 2007. [6]G. Liang, N. Neophytou, D.E. Nikonov, and M.S. Lundstrom, â€Å" Performance projections for ballistic graphene nanoribbon ï ¬ eld-effect transistors,† IEEE Trans. Electr on Devices, vol. 54, no. 4, pp. 677–682, Apr. 2007. [7]Y. W. Son, M. L. Cohen, and S. G. Louie, â€Å"Energy gaps in graphene nanoribbons,† Phys. Rev. Lett., vol. 97, no. 21, p. 216803, Nov. 2006. [8]X. Li, X. Wang, L. Zhang, S. Lee, and H. Dai, â€Å"Chemically derived, ultrasmooth graphene nanoribbon semiconductors,† Science, vol. 319, no. 5867, pp. 1229–1232, Feb. 2008. [9]T. Ohta, A. Bostwick, T. Seyller, K. Horn, and E. Rotenberg, â€Å"Controlling the electronic structure of bilayer graphene,† Science, vol. 313, no. 5789, pp. 951–954, Aug. 2006. [10]Y. Zhang, T.-T. Tang, C. Girit, Z. Hao, M. C. Martin, A. Zettl, M. F. Crommie, Y. R. Shen, and F. Wang, â€Å"Direct observation of a widely tunable bandgap in bilayer graphene,† Nature, vol. 459, no. 7248, pp. 820–823, Jun. 2009. [11]Jun Ito, Jun Nakamura, and Akiko Natori, â€Å"Semiconducting nature of the oxygen-adsorbed graphene sheet ,† Journal of applied phys. 103,113712 (2008). [12]Paolo Marconcini, Gianluca Fiori, Alessandro Ferretti, Giuseppe Iannaccone, and Massimo Macucci, â€Å"Numerical analysis of transport properties ofboron-doped graphene FETs†. [13]Zhipping Xu and Kun Xue, â€Å"Engeneering grap hene by oxidation: a first principle study,† Nanotechnology 21 (2010) 045704 [14]Gui Gui, Jin Li, and Jianxin Zhong ‘Band structure engineering of graphene by strain: First-principles calculations’, PHYSICAL REVIEW B 78, 075435 2008. [15]V.J. Surya, K. Iyakutti, H. Mizuseki, and Y. Kawazoe, â€Å"Tuning electronic structure of Graphene: A first-principle calculation,† IEEE Trans. Nanotechnology, vol.11, No.3,pp.534-541, May 2012.

Case study on observations of a child

Case study on observations of a child For confidentiality reason, I will refer to the child as A. Child A is a male, from a working class family, mixed heritage background: mum is Indian and dad is English. He is three years and two months old, a middle child with an older brother aged four and a nine months old sister. Parents are married and they all live together. The Tavistock Model of observation was used, as it helps social work student to reflect upon situations before intervening. A naturalistic observation was carried out in a co-educational private nursery; with a class size of 20 children ages between 3-4, and 3 teachers. To respect the rights of the carers and child As parent, consent was acquired. A target child observation was conducted for one hour a week over a six weeks period. To ensure the ecological validity and reduce demand characteristics an undisclosed non-participant observation was carried out. Observations provide a means of objective measurement of a wide range of behaviours as they occur in the natural environment. The use of direct observation allows for the description and evaluation of specific behaviours. Observational data have greater external or ecological validity. Behavioural observation can provide information about the purpose or cause of a given behaviour by evaluating its origin and consequent events that maintain the target behaviours. Structured Observation The most important skill needed for structured observation is an understanding of developmental theories and the effect environmental factors have on development. All aspects of observed behaviour according to Sheppard (2006) as citied in (Adams, Dominelli, Payne, 2009, p. 211), must be rigorously explained, analysed and contextualised. A structure observation has been defined as a detached rigorous approach adopted by researchers in a naturalistic controlled observation. This approach according to, produces an ecologically viable and reliable data free from a demand characteristics due to its scientific nature. Given the complexity of a scientific observation, and the constraints of time, only scientific aspect of behaviour is observed. Objective- that is free from personal feelings or thoughts for example my previous experiences, attitude and values. In conducting the observation, I strive to avoid jumping into conclusion; making generalisation; expressing personal opinions; and labelling. Listening skills- both verbal and non-verbal communication. Direct observation of non-verbal behaviour adds information about emotional states. Social workers need to be attentive to non-verbal cues e.g. tone of voice and link behaviour with emotions that might have caused it. Retaining the role of the observer- this was done by avoiding initiating or responding to the children. Avoid premature interpretation, without seeking to understand the context in which behaviour occurred. Accurate recording in a factual and chronological manner. This was especially helpful when relating observed behaviours to psychological theories. Recording as soon as possible as this affects how much I was able recall and the language used to code behaviour and experiences was also important for understanding my material. From a social work perspective, in order to gain useful information and reliable interpretation, a reflective approach has been used. Allows control of extraneous variables. Reliability of results can be tested by repeating the study. Provides a safe environment to study contentious concepts such as infant attachment. The implementation of controls may have an effect on behaviour. Lack of ecological validity. Observer effect. Observer bias. Key psychology theories Developmental psychology is concerned with understanding the interaction between individuals and their environment, and the impact this has on their long-term development. Crawford and Walker (2003, p18) as citied in (Ingleby 2010, 74), highlighted the impact biological and sociological perspective has on child development. Social workers work in a complex society dealing with individuals, family and communities. For social workers to be effective practitioner, the ability of relating theories to practice must not be underestimated. In the child development, the nature vs. nurture debate is vital, if the extent to which environmental and/or heredity factors that affects child development is to be established. Nature looks at the impact of heredity factors whiles nurture concentrates on the environmental factors on the development of a child. Psychodynamic theory focuses on the nature side of the debate. Nature influences the societal norms especially in the classification of milestone development. This is evidence in the classification used by psychologist such as Freud in his classification of psychosocial stages of development. According to Gesell, through maturation, the sequence of later development is determined. He used this term to describe, Genetically programed sequential patterns of change (H Bee and D Boyd, 2010, p. 5). The psychodynamic theory is based on the assumption that development is in stages and maturation is based on the inner conflicts and environmental demands. According to Freud, the language and thought development can be accounted for by the egocentric nature of a child. He divided his theory into psychosexual stages; the libido was seen as the most sensitive part at that stage. The observed child was fascinated about his toilet habit: this stage of development according to Freud was referred to as the anal stage as the libidinal energy is focused there. The observed displayed the anal stage with little or no signs of the previous stage, which according to Freud is known the oral stage. For Freud, a stage cannot be completed if the childs need were not sufficiently met. Erikson like Freud is a psychoanalyst; he believes that development is through stages and that the successful interaction between the child and the environment accounts for the development. He unlike Freud believes the environmental demands accounts for more in comparison to maturation. The observed child display a secure relationship toward his mother based on trust. This according to Freud can be accounted for by the effective bonding with his mother during the critical period. Erickson stages of development Ego Development Outcome: Autonomy vs. Shame Basic Strengths: Self-control, Courage, and Will During this stage children learn to master skills for themselves. They have the opportunity to build self-esteem and autonomy as they gain more control over their bodies and acquire new skills, learning right from wrong. It is also during this stage, however, that they can be vulnerable. If they are shamed in the process of learning important skills, they may feel great shame and doubt of their capabilities and suffer low self-esteem as a result. The relationship between the child and carer is critical for emotional well-being. By responded in a loving way, the carer helps to build As self-esteem. He felt secure and ready to explore more through play and interacted well with both peers and carers. Erickson Expanded on Freuds theories, he believed that development is life-long. He emphasized that at each stage, the child acquires attitudes and skills resulting from the successful negotiation of the psychological conflict. Basic trust vs. mistrust (birth 1 year) Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (ages 1-3) Initiative vs. guilt (ages 3-6) For secure attachment to be formed, according to Freud, the childs gratifications should have been sufficiently satisfied (Gross, 2010, p. 495). Whilst carrying out this observation, child A was involved in solitary play. I noticed that A was very imaginative in his play and engaged in private speech, as he used pieces of Lego to make a train track. According to Piagets Stages of Cognitive Development, A should be in the pre-occupational where symbolism is used. By about 2 years of age a child can let one object stands for (or symbolise) something else. During play, A would get upset if the Lego were not held in place. A did not act out his frustration as appropriate attention and recognition was given by the carer. A responded happily, smiled and said thank you. Child A was dropped off at nursery at 8.00 by his mother along with his older brother. He was very happy on arrival; he knew were to hang his coat and bag. His mum praised him and gave him a hug. A has therefore been conditioned by his mum as he associate getting a kiss and hug from mum, with hanging his coat and bag. BEHAVIOURISM-This behaviour can be linked to the work of Skinner known as OPERANT CONDITIONING, this refers to the link that exist between positively affirming behaviour that reinforces a particular stimulus Ingleby (2009). He showed his mother and brother his friends and identified then by name. However there was a change in behaviour when he entered his class, he was very quiet asked his mother to stay. However, when his mother explained that she had to leave he started crying. His mother assured him and with a hug and a kiss said goodbye. His carer was then able to comfort him. After about 5 minutes he was settled and assisted himself to breakfast. According to Bowlby and Ainsworth on attachment theory child A would be described as been securely attached. He exhibited distress when mother dropped him off, but because he has formed an attachment to the carer as well, she was able to comfort him. He felt secure and able to depend on the carer this is because A knows that she will provide comfort and reassurance, in times of need. The observed child display a secure relationship toward his mother based on trust. This according to Freud can be accounted for by the effective bonding with his mother during the critical period. Secure Attachment-The carer was also seen as another attachment figure because of the behaviour, responsiveness and sensitivity of the carer. This was also demonstrated through play as the carer did not intrude but take the lead of the child and assisted when the appropriate. He independently buttered his bread and poured some milk. After breakfast, he informed his carer in a cheerful tone that he had finished his food. The carer replied saying good boy. He smiled and started putting away his cutleries and instructed a group of 3 boys and 2 girls to help tidy up. This observed behaviour has linked to: Lev Vygotskys Sociocultural Theory Childrens cognitive development is heavily influenced by social and cultural factors. Childrens thinking develops through dialogues with more capable people Zone of Proximal Development: child A needed guidance during play by the skilled carer who acted as a scaffolding: by providing temporary support. Adults help children learn how to think by scaffolding, or supporting, their attempts to solve a problem or to discover principles. Scaffolding must be responsive to a childs needs On the nurture side of the debate, is behavioural theories, child development is influenced by environmental factors and the unconscious they believe is of little importance. According to Watson 1913 as cited by (H Bee and D Boyd, 2010), nurture plays an important part through the manipulation of environmental factors. This was demonstrated in his research on Little Albert and the effect of classical conditioning. The focus of the behavioural approach is on how the environment influences overt behaviour. According to behaviourist, an individual is a clean slate and the environmental factors are the chalk and the individual holding the chalk: what is written on the slate is decided by the individual holding the chalk (Ingleby, 2010, p. 5). An individual identity is therefore shaped by the interaction between the individual and the environment; this is a theory that can be associated with psychologist such as Skinner, Watson and Pavlov. Nature and nurture interaction is complex and both cannot independently shape a childs development. Rultter A, as cited in that nature should be considered by examining the vulnerability and protective factors effects on child development. Stages of human development and there relevance to social work Developmental psychology is concerned with understanding the interaction between individuals and their environment, and the impact this has on their long-term development. Crawford and Walker (2003, p18) as citied in (Ingleby, 2010, p. 74), highlighted the impact biological and sociological perspective has on child development. It is difficult to determine specific times when developmental changes occur, as they differ from person to person. The importance of observing children It gives a true and accurate account of the stages of development It aids our understanding of child development It provides evidence on our knowledge of what influences may affect development A clear understanding of the value and theories of play Observation helps us to fill in the gap between theory and practice. Fawcett (1996) describes the purpose of a child observation as: to develop professional competence in work with children and familiesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦observation should help you understand children and their range of behaviour better, to reassess your own preconceptions on the subject (Fawcett 1996, cited in The Frame work for Assessment of children in needà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) objective An increased sensitivity to children and a heightened awareness of the unique qualities of childhood A greater knowledge of how Child A thinks, feels, view the world, and how this compares to developmental norms A picture of child A, based on conditions that changes as new information added over time (Feeney, 2001, p.107-112 When interpreting the result of my observation, I was aware of my own assumptions about childrens behaviour based on my knowledge and experience (i.e. child development, socio-cultural influences, individual experience, etc.) The different perspectives that can contribute to a better understanding of the childs behaviour. I also learn to reflect on my feelings without distorting the observation. I also learn to recognise the childs position in his family and nursery, as well the wider social context and appreciate the diversity of these networks. REFLECTION At the start of the observation I felt anxious and concentrated on trying to relate psychological theories to observed behaviour. However, with time I became less anxious about the process and I was beginning to feel relax in my role as an observer. I felt happy at how responsive the carers were to the needs of the child especially during separation with parent and play. Following the death of Baby P, Laming (2009) recommended a full remodelling of social work training: good observation analytic skills; development of emotional resilience; reflection on and analysis of what is observed. Reflection according to Ruch (2000) supports insight into: how personal background affects learning and practice; the unavoidable impact of the emotional content of the interactions between social worker and client; the experiences of the client enables holistic approach to self and practice by integrating thinking and feeling On examining attachment I believe it is important to examine how emotionally expressive the culture in question is only then can we build a true picture of the attachment of the child based on an anti-discriminatory theory base. This experience has been invaluable as it contributes toward my personal development as it has enhanced my reflective and self-aware use of self which necessary for personal development and use of the professional self. As started by Mandell (2008 p. 244) Social workers bring to their profession not only their skills and knowledge but also their emotional history, values, commitment to social justice, biases, attitudes, anxieties, self-concept, protective instincts, cultural background and social identity During the observation and when relating observed behaviours to psychological theories I was petrified of mirroring my own early experiences and the influence this may have on my behaviour and responses to the observed behaviour. Closely observing a child over time has given me insight knowledge of theorising. I was able to integrate theory with practice and an understanding of the variety and range of factors that have an impact upon childrens development and performance. The understanding of self, self-awareness and been reflective in practice and learning and acknowledging how my personal background may affect my learning and practice; Understanding the unavoidable impact of the emotional content of the interactions between social worker and service users; for example during the observation I felt isolated, confused, happy, anxious and frustrated at times. This experience also helps me develop and understand the importance of maintaining professional boundaries for example maintaining the role of an observer; and integrity in initiating the contact between the nursery and the parent of the child observed by been honest about my intention and maintaining confidentiality. On the issue of seeking the consent of the child, I faced no dilemmas as the child was unable to give informed consent.

The Concept of Death and Afterlife in W.B.Yeats Byzantium and Sailing

I. INTRODUCTION Every soul shall have a taste of death. That brings us to a question of what death really is. Generally speaking, the basic concept of the process so called death is build up on the facts that this process starts when the heart stop its work to pump the blood which leads to the brain damage and the failure of the whole systems of human body. When all the system or the functions of human organs are out of work, the body itself becomes lifeless or dead. Furthermore, according to the religious points of view, being dead, as we mention above does not mean that the journey of human soul has come to an end. On the contrary once the soul left the body, it will transform into another living form and will live until the judgment day arrives. ?When all sequence comes to an end, time comes to an end, and the soul puts on the rhythmic or spiritual or luminous body and contemplates all the events of its memory and every possible impulse in an eternal possession of itself in one single moment. That condition is alone animate, all the rest is phantasy, and from thence came all the passions, and some have held, the very heat of the body?. (Norman, A. Jaffares. 1984, p.333) Apart from religious definition of death above, in fact Yeats is neither orthodoxy religious nor orthodoxy scientific. He has his own science, which is an occult one, and his own religion or sophisticated lower mythology and in prose he sometimes reconciles them at the level of mystic. His tolerance in religions resulted in inconsistent and ambiguous attitude as reflected in his Byzantium and Sailing to Byzantium. II. RELIGIOUS DOCTRINES INVOLVED 2.1 Christian Doctrine On the matter of death, according to Christian doctrine of man, God created hu... ... go through relieving its earthly life and will be purified in purgatory. All the evil deeds in human soul will be cleansing so that the soul becomes good and pure again and after that the soul will be united with the body again and he rebirth to lead on earthly life. All the evil deeds and good deeds done in the previous life will done in the previous life will determine the condition of the present life, be it good or bad. The above concept of Yeats no doubt is idealized by him from mixing up the two doctrines: Christian and Hinduism. In fact there is no incarnation in Christian doctrine of man. When a man dies he will go for spiritual journey to heaven (of course after cleansing in purgatory) as suggested by the title Sailing to Byzantium. But W. B. Yeats is so impressed and influenced by Hinduism and may be his love for earthly life so he wants to be incarnated.

Natl – the Cane Farmers

Case: â€Å"Nghe An Tate & Lyle Sugar Company (Viet Nam)† Question : Are farmers likely to convert to sugar cane ? The farmers who lived within 50 kilometers of the sugar mill are likely to convert to sugar cane in term of economic return and other benefits. – Economic return: Net returns to farmers per Hectare from growing Sugar cane is high. From Exhibit 9 with norminal cash flow of a crop life cycle ( 4 years), the total rerurn of one hectare is 6,900 (000’VND) and net present value is 3,841 (000’VND) with nominal discount rate 13. 3%/year.Compare to coffee and rubber, sugar cane need only one year to revenue. Compare with other crops ( pineapple, coffee, rubber †¦), Sugar cane can get highest economics from exhibit 10 as below: Unit: Dong per hecta | Sugar |Pineapple |Coffee |Rubber |Peanuts |Peanuts |Peanuts | |   |  cane | | | |and Maize |& peanuts |and Rices | |Number of years |420 |420 |420 |420 |420 |420 |420 | |Planting years |105 |140 | 168 |120 |0 |0 |0 | |Typical years |315 |280 |252 |300 |420 |420 |420 | |Revenue |2,835,000 |3,955,000 |4,536,000 |3,000,000 |2,856,000 |4,032,000 |4,080,300 | |Total Costs |2,110,500 |3,255,000 |5. 21,100 |3,097,500 |3,696,000 |3,864,000 |3,906,000 | |Total net return |724,500 |700,000 |-485,100 |-97,500 |-840,000 |168,000 |174,300 | |Return per year |1,725 |1,667 |-1,155 |-232 |-2,000 |400 |415 | | Note: 420 is lowest common multiple of crop life cycle (4,3,10,28) and assume that time value of money is ignored (no discount to present value). From exhibit 11, Net return from Cane also get highest net present value for period from 1998 to 2015 with nominal discount rate 13,3% per annum and opportunity cost of labor is $1. 0/day: NPV Cane +82,894; NPV pineapple +19,617; NPV coffee +2,438; NPV rubber -13,557, NPV combo A -34,515; NPV combo B +6,902, NPV combo C -2,158 (US$ in thousand). – Other benefits: One of three parts of NATL’s development plan is an outreach progra m to help local farmers to convert to cane production which means that their sugar cane will have more added value because cane production can sell with higher price and the farmers can use their products. The company expected to employ 725 people, provided n-house traning so many members of the farmer family can be come workers, educated ones can also become staffs. This will creat many good affects to the local farmers. The project would need roughly 300 lorries during the harvest season so some farmers can borrow money from local banks to buy new hauliers to transport cane to the factory. With many benefits as above, before converting to sugar cane the local farmers need to understand/know the risks of converting. The first risk is to avoid converting too much from the beginning of the project. The factory will reach full capacity by the 2002/2003 harvesting season, so for the period from 1998 to 2002, the numbers of hactares convert to cane need to increase arcordingly. – Second risk is related to the NATL’s complex payment system, with the first installment, approximately 75% of the total, would be made within 14 days of delivery and the rest would be made at the end of the season with adjustment for sugar content and market price.The local farmers seem to familiar with simple full payment upon delivery even though with lower price, many poor farmers can have enough cash for their daily life and no effected by adjustment with the old payment method. With these analysises, the famers will have much more benefits, some related risks can be considered and controlled so I believe that they will convert to sugar cane.

The Training of Staff in the Modern Business World

The Training of Staff in the Modern Business World The modern business world is fast paced and as such firms need to keep innovating new products and services so as to keep up with the changing business landscape. One of the ways through which firms can keep abreast with the ever changing business environment is through training of staff. Firms must not only train staff to equip them with new skill and knowledge but must also train them in order to spearhead innovative growth within the companies.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Training of Staff in the Modern Business World specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Training of a firm’s staff does not occur in a vacuum. It is a proactive process with explicit goals and in this case, training for innovations. This means that the human resource training development managers have a direct role to play in facilitating their firms to embrace innovations that will bring about much desired change. The human resource train ing development managers will attain this through developing programs that train employees on how to embrace and drive innovation. Furthermore, these managers need to focus on developing the employees to acquire innovative behavior. The development of staff cognitive abilities is one such method through which training professionals helps staff to acquire innovativeness. Such firms accrue such benefits such as competitiveness, enhanced business strategies and customer satisfaction. Therefore, training professionals play a leading role in innovation and change for business success. Professionals take the process of professional training and development as a continual process. This assertion is founded on the assumption that informal training occurs within the daily work flow. Professionals argue that the need for continued training and development is necessitated by many factors, among them technological changes in the work place, which require the acquisitions of new skills and knowl edge’s (Armson 2008, p. 23; Poell et al 2006, p. 175). While little (2010, p. 38) argues that it is important for employers to train employee’s competences, Emsley, Nevicky and Harrison (2006, p. 244) assert that it is important to train professionals with the aim of achieving a balance in both radical and non-radical innovation. Moreover Bondarouk and Looise (2005, p. 162) assert that human resourced developers need to promote human-centered IT based innovations which will not replace human but support employee’s basic skills. In addition, training and development of professionals within a firm is creatively undertaken at individual levels since it is individuals who instigate successful innovations (Reilly 2010, p. 10).Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In this regard, it becomes important for human resource developers to focus on developing th e cognitive abilities of individual employees. Emsley, et al’s assertion on the development of employees cognitive abilities is informed by the fact that cognitive development is a prerequisite to the acquisition of innovative behavior (2006, p. 245). Innovative behavior is necessary for the development of the right environment for innovation, which creates the necessary space for innovative creativity (Armson 2008, p. 20). Therefore, training professionals have to develop employee’s competent innovative behavior, which is vital for firm’s attainment of competitive edge in the global market (Little 2010, p. 39). Human resource trainers and developer acknowledge that training does not occur in a vacuum. This implies that effective professional training has to be modeled along given training model for it to be effective. As Reilly (2010, p. 22) explains training of employees in the job place is necessitated by a number of reasons, and as such it is integrated with in a firm’s employee development plans. This implies that employee training and development is an ongoing process (Emsley et al. 2006, p. 262) and that many human resource trainers run the risk of making it a long arduous process. This need not be so. Training professionals need to be creative with their training programs. Reilly (2010, p. 10) explains that firms which have attained successful training of employees to drive innovation have modeled their training programs creatively to avoid boredom. This is attained through breaking down training content into small digestible and interesting-to-deliver bits. Furthermore, successful professional in efforts to achieve creativity avoid making training programs too technical, meaning that they allow for spontaneity (Armson 2008, p. 20). The implementation of creative employees training program means that firm’s must have the necessary resources at their disposal. As Armson (2008, p. 22) argues, firms must see training prog rams as some of the risk prone activities and as such provide the enough human, financial as well as infrastructural resources. While the author above have not identified the role of formal and informal professional training programs, Poell et al. (2006, p. 176) asserts that formal training programs play very limited roles in development of quality employees to bring about innovative changes. The best training program designs are informal and are also delivered informally.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Training of Staff in the Modern Business World specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Bondarouk and Looise (2005, p. 162) asserts that the best approach for human resource developers is to adopt human-centered IT based innovations which will not replace human but support employee’s basic skills. Therefore the success of training programs depends on the approach adopted by human resource program developers. Aust ralian banks take the developed innovation in their training and development programs. The Commonwealth Bank of Australia is ranked number two in terms of size and also in providing financial services. In order to drive and develop for innovation the bank has identified two major resources that it need to attain this objective. These are physical resources, within which training materials are included, and intangible resources, within which training of employees is included. One of the avenues through which the bank aims at providing its client with valued added services is through innovations. Innovations are attained through the banks intangible resources especially the human resources training (Commonwealth Bank of Australia n.d., p. 5, 9). Similarly St. George Bank, in efforts to boost productivity, sees its development of human resource through outsourced training program. The Bank’s human resource development managers see the need to equip all employees with skills that will enable the bank have a competitive edge in the financial services sector. As such, St. George Bank outsources its services from Workplace Australia Group (DEEWR 2011, n.pag.). There are similarities in the way the two banks approach training for innovation. Both Commonwealth Bank of Australia and St. George Bank model their training program with the innovation of new financial products and services in mind (Commonwealth Bank of Australia n.d., p. 9; DEEWR 2011., n.pag.). As such the two banks see training their employees not only as the key the development of innovative products but also as a mean of establishing a competitive edged in the fast paced Australian banking sector. Furthermore, the two banks design their training programs with the aim of innovative products and services for customer satisfaction. At St. George Bank, staff development programs are directly connected with business success as well as customer satisfaction (Liquid Learning Group 2007, p. 2). Similarly, Commonwealth Bank of Australia approach to training is attained through the innovation of better communication tools that engage that give its customer a satisfactory banking experience (Commonwealth Bank of Australia n.d., p. 14).Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Moreover, the two banks approach training for innovativeness as part of the banks’ business strategies. While the Commonwealth Bank of Australia aims at training its employees to expand the bank’s physical border as well as products and services range, St. George Bank interrelate its training program with innovative leadership, business success and customer satisfaction (Liquid Learning Group 2007, P. 2; Commonwealth Bank of Australia n.d., p. 11, 12). On the other hand there are differences in approach to training between the two banks. At St. George Bank, training is an ongoing formal process that is deeply integrated into the bank’s daily work flow. Furthermore, the bank prefers to outsource the training program from Workplace Australia Group (DEEWR 2011, n.pag.). The Commonwealth Bank of Australia has developed an inbuilt training program, and provides its own training materials which are part of the banks physical resources. As such, the bank is self relian t when it comes to training its employees. Regardless of the dissimilarities the two banks have successful training programs. In summary, training professionals play a leading ole in preparing firms to embrace innovations and change. This is attained through tailor-made training programs which are aimed at addressing the particular firm needs. The two types of training methods, formal and inform have be found to work well in specific companies. Informal training is spontaneous and has the capability of addressing needs as they arise, while formal training is structural and rigid. Furthermore, training professionals have different approaches through which they approach training of staff. For instance, at St. George Bank, training of employees is an ongoing process mostly reliant on outsource service, while at The Commonwealth Bank of Australia is an inbuilt capacity within the bank. All these approached have one aim in common: to make the firm’s innovation and change complaint . It can therefore be concluded that training of staff within firms is only effective if it is done with the goal of helping individual employees acquire innovative behavior. Furthermore, informal training, which is spontaneous, creates more room for creativity, a condition that makes training innovative in itself. Reference List Armson, G. 2008, How innovative is your culture? Coaching for creativity in the workplace Training Development, pp 20-22. Bondarouk, T and Looise J 2005, HR contribution to IT innovation implementation: Results of Three Case Studies,  Creativity and Innovation Management, vol. 14 No 2, 2005. Commonwealth Bank of Australia n.d, Commonwealth Bank of Australia, Harvard paper sample. Web. DEEWR 2011, St. George Bank employees study for Certificate III in Financial Services retrieved https://www.training.com.au/ Emsley, D Nevicky, B and Harrison, G 2006, Effect of cognitive style and professional development on the initiation of radical and non-radical manage ment accounting innovations Accounting and Finance, vol. 46, pp 243–264. Little, Bob 2010, Competency capers, Training Journal, pp 38 – 39. Liquid Learning Group 2007, Strengthening the linkages between leadership, culture and performance. 4th Annual Asia-Pacific Leadership People Development Summit , pp 2. Poell, R et al 2006, Roles of informal workplace trainers in different organizational contexts: Empirical evidence from Australian companies, Human Resource Development Quarterly, vol. 17, no. 2, retrieved DOI: 10.1002/hrdq.1168 Reilly, V 2010, Getting creative with technical training, Training Development In Australia, pp 10 – 22.